Ex Reference Manual
Version 3.7
William Joy
Mark Horton
Computer Science Division
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, Ca. 94720
ABSTRACT
Ex is a line oriented text editor, which supports
both command and display oriented editing. This refer-
ence manual describes the command oriented part of ex;
the display editing features of ex are described in An
Introduction to Display Editing with Vi. Other docu-
ments about the editor include the introduction Edit: A
tutorial, the Ex/edit Command Summary, and a Vi Quick
Reference card.
1. Starting ex
Each instance of the editor has a set of options, which can
be set to tailor it to your liking.
When invoked, ex determines the terminal type from the TERM
variable in the environment. If there is a variable NEXINIT in
the environment, then the editor will execute the commands in
that variable, otherwise if there is a variable EXINIT in the
environment, then the editor will execute the commands in that
variable. If there is a file .nexrc in your HOME directory ex
reads commands from that file, simulating a source command. Oth-
erwise, if there is a file .exrc in your HOME directory, ex will
read that. Additionally, ex will read startup commands from the
current working directory, if they are placed in the files .nexrc
or .exrc. Option setting commands placed in NEXINIT, EXINIT,
.nexrc, or .exrc will be executed before each editor session.
A command to enter ex has the following prototype (brackets
_________________________
The financial support of an IBM Graduate Fellowship and the
National Science Foundation under grants MCS74-07644-A03 and
MCS78-07291 is gratefully acknowledged.
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`[' `]' surround optional parameters here):
ex [-] [-FRrSsv] [-c cmd] [-t tag] [-w size] [+command] [file ...]
The most common case edits a single file with no options, i.e.:
ex name
The - command line option option suppresses all interactive-user
feedback and is useful in processing editor scripts in command
files. The -s option is the POSIX equivalent to -; both forms are
identical. The -v option is equivalent to using vi rather than
ex. The -t option is equivalent to an initial tag command, edit-
ing the file containing the tag and positioning the editor at its
definition. The -r option is used in recovering after an editor
or system crash, retrieving the last saved version of the named
file or, if no file is specified, typing a list of saved files.
The -w option sets the default window size to n, and is useful on
dialups to start in small windows.
The -R option sets the readonly option at the start. The -S
option cause ex to be run with the secure option, disallowing all
access to external programs. The -F option prevents ex from copy-
ing the entire file at startup (the default is to make a copy of
the file at startup).
Name arguments indicate files to be edited. An argument of
the form +command indicates that the editor should begin by exe-
cuting the specified command. If command is omitted, then it
defaults to ``$'', positioning the editor at the last line of the
first file initially. Other useful commands here are scanning
patterns of the form ``/pat'' or line numbers, e.g. ``+100''
starting at line 100. The form -c cmd is the POSIX equivalent to
+command; both forms are identical.
2. File manipulation
2.1. Current file
Ex is normally editing the contents of a single file, whose
name is recorded in the current file name. Ex performs all edit-
ing actions in a buffer (actually a temporary file) into which
the text of the file is initially read. Changes made to the
buffer have no effect on the file being edited unless and until
the buffer contents are written out to the file with a write com-
mand. After the buffer contents are written, the previous con-
tents of the written file are no longer accessible. When a file
is edited, its name becomes the current file name, and its con-
tents are read into the buffer.
The current file is almost always considered to be edited.
This means that the contents of the buffer are logically con-
nected with the current file name, so that writing the current
buffer contents onto that file, even if it exists, is a
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reasonable action. If the current file is not edited then ex will
not normally write on it if it already exists.*
2.2. Alternate file
Each time a new value is given to the current file name, the
previous current file name is saved as the alternate file name.
Similarly if a file is mentioned but does not become the current
file, it is saved as the alternate file name.
2.3. Filename expansion
Filenames within the editor may be specified using the nor-
mal shell expansion conventions. In addition, the character `%'
in filenames is replaced by the current file name and the charac-
ter `#' by the alternate file name. This makes it easy to deal
alternately with two files and eliminates the need for retyping
the name supplied on an edit command after a No write since last
change diagnostic is received.
2.4. Multiple files and named buffers
If more than one file is given on the command line, then the
first file is edited as described above. The remaining arguments
are placed with the first file in the argument list. The current
argument list may be displayed with the args command. The next
file in the argument list may be edited with the next command.
The argument list may also be respecified by specifying a list of
names to the next command. These names are expanded, the result-
ing list of names becomes the new argument list, and ex edits the
first file on the list.
For saving blocks of text while editing, and especially when
editing more than one file, ex has a group of named buffers.
These are similar to the normal buffer, except that only a lim-
ited number of operations are available on them. The buffers have
names a through z. It is also possible to refer to A through Z;
the upper case buffers are the same as the lower but commands
append to named buffers rather than replacing if upper case names
are used.
2.5. Read only
It is possible to use ex in read only mode to look at files
that you have no intention of modifying. This mode protects you
from accidently overwriting the file. Read only mode is on when
the readonly option is set. It can be turned on with the -R com-
mand line option, by the view command line invocation, or by set-
ting the readonly option. It can be cleared by setting
noreadonly. It is possible to write, even while in read only
_________________________
* The file command will say ``[Not edited]'' if the current file
is not considered edited.
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mode, by indicating that you really know what you are doing. You
can write to a different file, or can use the ! form of write,
even while in read only mode.
3. Exceptional Conditions
3.1. Errors and interrupts
When errors occur ex (optionally) rings the terminal bell
and, in any case, prints an error diagnostic. If the primary
input is from a file, editor processing will terminate. If an
interrupt signal is received, ex prints ``Interrupt'' and returns
to its command level. If the primary input is a file, then ex
will exit when this occurs.
3.2. Recovering from hangups and crashes
If a hangup signal is received and the buffer has been modi-
fied since it was last written out, or if the system crashes,
either the editor (in the first case) or the system (after it
reboots in the second) will attempt to preserve the buffer. The
next time you log in you should be able to recover the work you
were doing, losing at most a few lines of changes from the last
point before the hangup or editor crash. To recover a file you
can use the -r option. If you were editing the file resume, then
you should change to the directory where you were when the crash
occurred, giving the command
ex -r resume
After checking that the retrieved file is indeed ok, you can
write it over the previous contents of that file.
You will normally get mail from the system telling you when
a file has been saved after a crash. The command
ex -r
will print a list of the files which have been saved for you. (In
the case of a hangup, the file will not appear in the list,
although it can be recovered.)
4. Editing modes
Ex has five distinct modes. The primary mode is command
mode. Commands are entered in command mode when a `:' prompt is
present, and are executed each time a complete line is sent. In
text input mode, ex gathers input lines and places them in the
file. The append, insert, and change commands use text input
mode. No prompt is printed when you are in text input mode. This
mode is left by typing a `.' alone at the beginning of a line,
and command mode resumes.
The last two modes are visual mode, entered by the command
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of the same name, and, within visual mode text insertion mode.
Visual mode allows local editing operations to be performed on
the text in the file. Visual mode works on CRT terminals with
random positioning cursors, using the screen as a window for file
editing changes. These modes are described (only) in An Introduc-
tion to Display Editing with Vi.
5. Command structure
Most command names are English words, and initial prefixes
of the words are acceptable abbreviations. The ambiguity of
abbreviations is resolved in favor of the more commonly used com-
mands.*
5.1. Command parameters
Most commands accept prefix addresses specifying the lines
in the file upon which they are to have effect. The forms of
these addresses will be discussed below. A number of commands
also may take a trailing count argument, specifying the number of
lines to be involved in the command. Counts are rounded down if
necessary. Thus the command ``10p'' will print the tenth line in
the buffer while ``delete 5'' will delete five lines from the
buffer, starting with the current line.
Some commands take other information or parameters, this
information always being given after the command name. Examples
would be option names in a set command i.e. ``set number'', a
file name in an edit command, a regular expression in a substi-
tute command, or a target address for a copy command, i.e. ``1,5
copy 25''.
5.2. Command variants
A number of commands have two distinct variants. The variant
form of the command is invoked by placing an `!' immediately
after the command name. Some of the default variants may be con-
trolled by options; in this case, the `!' serves to toggle the
default.
5.3. Flags after commands
The characters `#', `p' and `l' may be placed after many
commands.** In this case, the command abbreviated by these char-
acters is executed after the command completes. Since ex normally
prints the new current line after each change, `p' is rarely
necessary. Any number of `+' or `-' characters may also be given
_________________________
* As an example, the command substitute can be abbreviated `s'
while the shortest available abbreviation for the set command is
`se'.
** A `p' or `l' must be preceded by a blank or tab except in the
single special case `dp'.
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with these flags. If they appear, the specified offset is applied
to the current line value before the printing command is exe-
cuted.
5.4. Comments
It is possible to give editor commands which are ignored.
This is useful when making complex editor scripts for which com-
ments are desired. The comment character is the double quote: ".
Any command line beginning with " is ignored. Comments beginning
with " may also be placed at the ends of commands, except in
cases where they could be confused as part of text (shell escapes
and the substitute and map commands).
5.5. Multiple commands per line
More than one command may be placed on a line by separating
each pair of commands by a `|' character. However the global com-
mands, comments, and the shell escape `!' must be the last com-
mand on a line, as they are not terminated by a `|'.
5.6. Reporting large changes
Most commands which change the contents of the editor buffer
give feedback if the scope of the change exceeds a threshold
given by the report option. This feedback helps to detect
undesirably large changes so that they may be quickly and easily
reversed with an undo. After commands with more global effect
such as global or visual, you will be informed if the net change
in the number of lines in the buffer during this command exceeds
this threshold.
6. Command addressing
6.1. Addressing primitives
. The current line. Most commands leave the
current line as the last line which they
affect. The default address for most commands
is the current line, thus `.' is rarely used
alone as an address.
n The nth line in the editor's buffer, lines
being numbered sequentially from 1.
$ The last line in the buffer.
% An abbreviation for ``1,$''; the entire
buffer.
+n, -n An offset relative to the current buffer
line.*
_________________________
* The forms `.+3', `+3', and `+++' are all equivalent; if the
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/pat/, ?pat? Scan forward and backward respectively for a
line containing pat, a regular expression (as
defined below). The scans normally wrap
around the end of the buffer. If all that is
desired is to print the next line containing
pat, then the trailing / or ? may be omitted.
If pat is omitted or explicitly empty, then
the last regular expression specified is
located.*
'' 'x Before each non-relative motion of the
current line `.', the previous current line
is marked with a tag, subsequently referred
to as ''. This makes it easy to refer or
return to this previous context. Marks may
also be established by the mark command,
using single lower case letters x and the
marked lines referred to as 'x.
6.2. Combining addressing primitives
Addresses to commands consist of a series of addressing
primitives, separated by `,' or `;'. Such address lists are
evaluated left-to-right. When addresses are separated by `;' the
current line `.' is set to the value of the previous addressing
expression before the next address is interpreted. If more
addresses are given than the command requires, then all but the
last one or two are ignored. If the command takes two addresses,
the first addressed line must precede the second in the buffer.**
7. Command descriptions
The following form is a prototype for all ex commands:
address command ! parameters count flags
All parts are optional; the degenerate case is the empty command
which prints the next line in the file. For sanity with use from
within visual mode, ex ignores a ``:'' preceding any command.
In the following command descriptions, the default addresses
are shown in parentheses, which are not, however, part of the
command.
_________________________
current line is line 100i, they all address line 103.
* The forms \/ and \? scan using the last regular expression used
in a scan; after a substitute // and ?? would scan using the
substitute's regular expression.
** Null address specifications are permitted in a list of
addresses, the default in this case is the current line `.'; thus
`,100' is equivalent to `.,100'. It is an error to give a prefix
address to a command which expects none.
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abbreviate word rhs abbr: ab
Add the named abbreviation to the current list. When in
input mode in visual, if word is typed as a complete word,
it will be changed to rhs.
( . ) append abbr: a
text
.
Reads the input text and places it after the specified line.
After the command, `.' addresses the last line input or the
specified line if no lines were input. If address `0' is
given, text is placed at the beginning of the buffer.
a!
text
.
The variant flag to append toggles the setting for the
autoindent option during the input of text.
args
The members of the argument list are printed, with the
current argument delimited by `[' and `]'.
cd directory
The cd command is a synonym for chdir.
( . , . ) change count abbr: c
text
.
Replaces the specified lines with the input text. The
current line becomes the last line input; if no lines were
input, it is left as for a delete.
c!
text
.
The variant toggles autoindent during the change.
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chdir directory abbrev: chd
The specified directory becomes the current directory. If no
directory is specified, the current value of the home option
is used as the target directory. After a chdir the current
file is not considered to have been edited so that write
restrictions on pre-existing files apply.
( . , . )copy addr flags abbr: co
A copy of the specified lines is placed after addr, which
may be `0'. The current line `.' addresses the last line of
the copy. The command t is a synonym for copy.
( . , . )delete buffer count flags abbr: d
Removes the specified lines from the buffer. The line after
the last line deleted becomes the current line; if the lines
deleted were originally at the end, the new last line
becomes the current line. If a named buffer is specified by
giving a letter, then the specified lines are saved in that
buffer, or appended to it if an upper case letter is used.
edit file abbr: e
ex file
Used to begin an editing session on a new file. The editor
first checks to see if the buffer has been modified since
the last write command was issued. If it has been, a warning
is issued and the command is aborted. The command otherwise
deletes the entire contents of the editor buffer, makes the
named file the current file and prints the new filename.
After ensuring that this file is sensible* the editor reads
the file into its buffer.
If the read of the file completes without error, the number
of lines and characters read is typed. If the last line of
the input file is missing the trailing newline character, it
will be supplied and a complaint will be issued. This com-
mand leaves the current line `.' at the last line read.**
_________________________
* I.e., that it is not a special file such as a directory, a
block or character special file other than /dev/tty, or a termi-
nal.
** If executed from within visual, the current line is initially
the first line of the file.
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e! file
The variant form suppresses the complaint about modifica-
tions having been made and not written from the editor
buffer, thus discarding all changes which have been made
before editing the new file.
e +n file
Causes the editor to begin at line n rather than at the last
line; n may also be an editor command containing no spaces,
e.g.: ``+/pat''.
file abbr: f
Prints the current file name, whether it has been `[Modi-
fied]' since the last write command, whether it is read
only, the current line, the number of lines in the buffer,
and the percentage of the way through the buffer of the
current line.*
file file
The current file name is changed to file, which is con-
sidered `[Not edited]'.
( 1 , $ ) global /pat/ cmds abbr: g
First marks each line among those specified which matches
the given regular expression. Then the given command list is
executed with `.' initially set to each marked line.
The command list consists of the remaining commands on the
current input line and may continue to multiple lines by
ending all but the last such line with a `\'. If cmds (and
possibly the trailing / delimiter) is omitted, each line
matching pat is printed. Append, insert, and change commands
and associated input are permitted; the `.' terminating
input may be omitted if it would be on the last line of the
command list. Visual commands are permitted in the command
list and take input from the terminal.
The global command itself may not appear in cmds. The undo
command is also not permitted there, as undo instead can be
_________________________
* In the rare case that the current file is `[Not edited]' this
is noted also; in this case you have to use the form w! to write
to the file, since the editor is not sure that a write will not
destroy a file unrelated to the current contents of the buffer.
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used to reverse the entire global command. The options auto-
print and autoindent are inhibited during a global, (and
possibly the trailing / delimiter) and the value of the
report option is temporarily infinite, in deference to a
report for the entire global. Finally, the context mark ('')
is set to the value of `.' before the global command begins
and is not changed during a global command, except perhaps
by a visual within the global.
g! /pat/ cmds abbr: v
The variant form of global runs cmds at each line not match-
ing pat.
( . )insert abbr: i
text
.
Places the given text before the specified line. The current
line is left at the last line input; if there were none
input it is left at the line before the addressed line. This
command differs from append only in the placement of text.
i!
text
.
The variant toggles autoindent during the insert.
( . , .+1 ) join count flags abbr: j
Places the text from a specified range of lines together on
one line. Whitespace is adjusted at each junction to provide
at least one blank character, two if there was a `.' at the
end of the line, or none if the first following character is
a `)'. If there is already whitespace at the end of the
line, then the whitespace at the start of the next line will
be discarded.
j!
The variant causes a simpler join with no whitespace pro-
cessing; the characters in the lines are simply con-
catenated.
( . ) k x
The k command is a synonym for mark. It does not require a
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blank or tab before the following letter.
( . , . ) list count flags
Prints the specified lines in a more unambiguous way: tabs
are printed as `^I' and the end of each line is marked with
a trailing `$'. The current line is left at the last line
printed.
map lhs rhs
The map command is used to define macros for use in visual
mode. Lhs should be a single character, or the sequence
``#n'', for n a digit, referring to function key n. When
this character or function key is typed in visual mode, it
will be as though the corresponding rhs had been typed. On
terminals without function keys, you can type ``#n''. See
section 6.8 of the ``Introduction to Display Editing with
Vi'' for more details.
( . ) mark x
Gives the specified line mark x, a single lower case letter.
The x must be preceded by a blank or a tab. The addressing
form 'x then addresses this line. The current line is not
affected by this command.
( . , . ) move addr abbr: m
The move command repositions the specified lines to be after
addr. The first of the moved lines becomes the current line.
next abbr: n
The next file from the command line argument list is edited.
n!
The variant suppresses warnings about the modifications to
the buffer not having been written out, discarding (irre-
trievably) any changes which may have been made.
n filelist
n +command filelist
The specified filelist is expanded and the resulting list
replaces the current argument list; the first file in the
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new list is then edited. If command is given (it must con-
tain no spaces), then it is executed after editing the first
such file.
( . , . ) number count flags abbr: # or nu
Prints each specified line preceded by its buffer line
number. The current line is left at the last line printed.
preserve abbrev: pre
The current editor buffer is saved as though the system had
just crashed. This command is for use only in emergencies
when a write command has resulted in an error and you don't
know how to save your work. After a preserve you should seek
help.
( . , . )print count abbr: p or P
Prints the specified lines with non-printing characters
printed as control characters `^x'; delete (octal 177) is
represented as `^?'. The current line is left at the last
line printed.
( . )put buffer abbr: pu
Puts back previously deleted or yanked lines. Normally used
with delete to effect movement of lines, or with yank to
effect duplication of lines. If no buffer is specified, then
the last deleted or yanked text is restored.* By using a
named buffer, text may be restored that was saved there at
any previous time.
quit abbr: q
Causes ex to terminate. No automatic write of the editor
buffer to a file is performed. However, ex issues a warning
message if the file has changed since the last write command
was issued, and does not quit.** Normally, you will wish to
save your changes, and you should give a write command; if
you wish to discard them, use the q! command variant.
_________________________
* But no modifying commands may intervene between the delete or
yank and the put, nor may lines be moved between files without
using a named buffer.
** Ex will also issue a diagnostic if there are more files in the
argument list.
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q!
Quits from the editor, discarding changes to the buffer
without complaint.
( . ) read file abbr: r
Places a copy of the text of the given file in the editing
buffer after the specified line. If no file is given, the
current file name is used. The current file name is not
changed unless there is none, in which case file becomes the
current name. The sensibility restrictions for the edit com-
mand apply here also. If the file buffer is empty and there
is no current name then ex treats this as an edit command.
Address `0' is legal for this command and causes the file to
be read at the beginning of the buffer. Statistics are given
as for the edit command when the read successfully ter-
minates. After a read the current line is the last line
read.*
( . ) read !command
Reads the output of the command command into the buffer
after the specified line. This is not a variant form of the
command, rather a read specifying a command rather than a
filename; a blank or tab before the ! is mandatory.
recover file
Recovers file from the system save area. Used, for example,
after a remote connection has timed out** or a system
crash** or preserve command. Except when you use preserve
you will be notified by mail when a file is saved.
rewind abbr: rew
The argument list is rewound, and the first file in the list
is edited.
rew!
Rewinds the argument list discarding any changes made to the
_________________________
* Within visual mode, the current line is set to the first line
read rather than the last.
** The system saves a copy of the file you were editing only if
you have made changes to the file.
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current buffer.
set parameter
With no arguments, prints those options whose values have
been changed from their defaults; with parameter all it
prints all of the option values.
Giving an option name followed by a `?' causes the current
value of that option to be printed. The `?' is unnecessary
unless the option is Boolean valued. Boolean options are
given values either by the form `set option' to turn them on
or `set nooption' to turn them off; string and numeric
options are assigned via the form `set option=value'.
More than one parameter may be given to set; they are inter-
preted left-to-right.
shell abbr: sh
A new shell is created. When it terminates, editing resumes.
source file abbr: so
Reads and executes commands from the specified file. Source
commands may be nested.
( . , . ) substitute /pat/repl/ options count flags abbr: s
On each specified line, the first instance of pattern pat is
replaced by replacement pattern repl. If the global indica-
tor option character `g' appears, then all instances are
substituted; if the confirm indication character `c'
appears, then before each substitution the line to be sub-
stituted is typed with the string to be substituted marked
with `^' characters. By typing a `y' one can cause the sub-
stitution to be performed, any other input causes no change
to take place. After a substitute the current line is the
last line substituted.
Lines may be split by substituting new-line characters into
them. The newline in repl must be escaped by preceding it
with a `\'. Other metacharacters available in pat and repl
are described below.
stop
Suspends the editor, returning control to the top level
shell. If autowrite is set and there are unsaved changes, a
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write is done first unless the form stop! is used. This com-
mand is only available where supported by the tty driver and
operating system.
( . , . ) substitute options count flagsabbr: s
If pat and repl are omitted, then the last substitution is
repeated. This is a synonym for the & command.
( . , . ) t addr flags
The t command is a synonym for copy.
tag tagstring abbrev: ta
The focus of editing switches to the location of tagstring,
switching to a different line in the current file where it
is defined, or if necessary to another file.*
The tags file is normally created by a program such as
ctags, and consists of a number of lines with three fields
separated by blanks or tabs. The first field gives the name
of the tag, the second the name of the file where the tag
resides, and the third gives an addressing form which can be
used by the editor to find the tag; this field is usually a
contextual scan using `/pat/' to be immune to minor changes
in the file. Such scans are always performed as if nomagic
was set.
The tag names in the tags file must be sorted alphabeti-
cally.
unabbreviate word abbr: una
Delete word from the list of abbreviations.
undo abbr: u
Reverses the changes made in the buffer by the last buffer
editing command. Note that global commands are considered a
single command for the purpose of undo (as is visual.) Also,
the commands write and edit which interact with the filesys-
tem cannot be undone. Undo is its own inverse.
_________________________
* If you have modified the current file before giving a tag com-
mand, you must write it out; giving another tag command, specify-
ing no tag will reuse the previous tag.
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Undo always marks the previous value of the current line `.'
as ''. After an undo the current line is the first line
restored or the line before the first line deleted if no
lines were restored. For commands with more global effect
such as global and visual the current line regains it's pre-
command value after an undo.
unmap lhs
The macro expansion associated by map for lhs is removed.
( 1 , $ ) v /pat/ cmds
A synonym for the global command variant g!, running the
specified cmds on each line which does not match pat.
version abbr: ve
Prints the current version number of the editor as well as
the date the editor was last changed.
( . ) visual type count flags abbr: vi
Enters visual mode at the specified line. Type is optional
and may be `-' , `^' or `.' as in the z command to specify
the placement of the specified line on the screen. By
default, if type is omitted, the specified line is placed as
the first on the screen. A count specifies an initial window
size; the default is the value of the option window. See the
document An Introduction to Display Editing with Vi for more
details. To exit this mode, type Q.
visual file
visual +n file
From visual mode, this command is the same as edit.
( 1 , $ ) write file abbr: w
Writes changes made back to file, printing the number of
lines and characters written. Normally file is omitted and
the text goes back where it came from. If a file is speci-
fied, then text will be written to that file.* If the file
_________________________
* The editor writes to a file only if it is the current file and
is edited, if the file does not exist, or if the file is actually
a teletype, /dev/tty, /dev/null. Otherwise, you must give the
variant form w! to force the write.
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does not exist, it is created. The current file name is
changed only if there is no current file name; the current
line is never changed.
If an error occurs while writing the current and edited
file, the editor considers that there has been ``No write
since last change'' even if the buffer had not previously
been modified.
( 1 , $ ) write>> file abbr: w>>
Writes the buffer contents at the end of an existing file.
w! name
Overrides the checking of the normal write command, and will
write to any file which the system permits.
( 1 , $ ) w !command
Writes the specified lines into command. Note the difference
between w! which overrides checks and w ! which writes to a
command.
wq name
Like a write and then a quit command.
wq! name
The variant overrides checking on the sensibility of the
write command, as w! does.
xit name abbr: x
If any changes have been made and not written, writes the
buffer out. Then, in any case, quits.
( . , . )yank buffer count abbr: ya
Places the specified lines in the named buffer, for later
retrieval via put. If no buffer name is specified, the lines
go to a more volatile place; see the put command descrip-
tion.
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( .+1 ) z count
Print the next count lines, default window.
( . ) z type count
Prints a window of text with the specified line at the top.
If type is `-', the line is placed at the bottom; a `.'
causes the line to be placed in the center.* A count gives
the number of lines to be displayed rather than double the
number specified by the scroll option. On a CRT the screen
is cleared before display begins unless a count which is
less than the screen size is given. The current line is left
at the last line printed.
! command
The remainder of the line after the `!' character is sent to
a shell to be executed. Within the text of command the char-
acters `%' and `#' are expanded as in filenames and the
character `!' is replaced with the text of the previous com-
mand. Thus, in particular, `!!' repeats the last such shell
escape. If any such expansion is performed, the expanded
line will be echoed. The current line is unchanged by this
command.
If there has been ``[No write]'' of the buffer contents
since the last change to the editing buffer, then a diagnos-
tic will be printed before the command is executed as a
warning. A single `!' is printed when the command completes.
( addr , addr ) ! command
Takes the specified address range and supplies it as stan-
dard input to command; the resulting output then replaces
the input lines.
( $ ) =
Prints the line number of the addressed line. The current
line is unchanged.
_________________________
* Forms `z=' and `z^' also exist; `z=' places the current line in
the center, surrounds it with lines of `-' characters and leaves
the current line at this line. The form `z^' prints the window
before `z-' would. The characters `+', `^' and `-' may be
repeated for cumulative effect. On some v2 editors, no type may
be given.
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( . , . ) > count flags
( . , . ) < count flags
Perform intelligent shifting on the specified lines; <
shifts left and > shifts right. The quantity of shift is
determined by the shiftwidth option and the repetition of
the specification character. Only whitespace (blanks and
tabs) is shifted; no non-white characters are discarded in a
left-shift. The current line becomes the last line which
changed due to the shifting.
^D
An end-of-file from a terminal input scrolls through the
file. The scroll option specifies the size of the scroll,
normally a half screen of text.
( .+1 , .+1 )
( .+1 , .+1 )
An address alone causes the addressed lines to be printed. A
blank line prints the next line in the file.
( . , . ) & options count flags
Repeats the previous substitute command.
( . , . ) ~ options count flags
Replaces the previous regular expression with the previous
replacement pattern from a substitution.
8. Regular expressions and substitute replacement patterns
8.1. Regular expressions
A regular expression specifies a set of strings of charac-
ters. A member of this set of strings is said to be matched by
the regular expression. Ex remembers two previous regular expres-
sions: the previous regular expression used in a substitute com-
mand and the previous regular expression used elsewhere (referred
to as the previous scanning regular expression.) The previous
regular expression can always be referred to by a null re, e.g.
`//' or `??'.
8.2. Magic and nomagic
The regular expressions allowed by ex are constructed in one
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of two ways depending on the setting of the magic option. The ex
and vi default setting of magic gives quick access to a powerful
set of regular expression metacharacters. The disadvantage of
magic is that the user must remember that these metacharacters
are magic and precede them with the character `\' to use them as
``ordinary'' characters. With nomagic, regular expressions are
much simpler, there being only two metacharacters. The power of
the other metacharacters is still available by preceding the
(now) ordinary character with a `\'. Note that `\' is thus always
a metacharacter.
The remainder of the discussion of regular expressions
assumes that that the setting of this option is magic.*
8.3. Basic regular expression summary
The following basic constructs are used to construct magic
mode regular expressions.
char An ordinary character matches itself. The charac-
ters `^' at the beginning of a line, `$' at the
end of line, `*' as any character other than the
first, `.', `\', `[', and `~' are not ordinary
characters and must be escaped (preceded) by `\'
to be treated as such.
^ At the beginning of a pattern forces the match to
succeed only at the beginning of a line.
$ At the end of a regular expression forces the
match to succeed only at the end of the line.
. Matches any single character except the new-line
character.
\< Forces the match to occur only at the beginning of
a ``variable'' or ``word''; that is, either at the
beginning of a line, or just before a letter,
digit, or underline and after a character not one
of these.
\> Similar to `\<', but matching the end of a ``vari-
able'' or ``word'', i.e. either the end of the
line or before character which is neither a
letter, nor a digit, nor the underline character.
_________________________
* To discern what is true with nomagic it suffices to remember
that the only special characters in this case will be `^' at the
beginning of a regular expression, `$' at the end of a regular
expression, and `\'. With nomagic the characters `~' and `&' also
lose their special meanings related to the replacement pattern of
a substitute.
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[string] Matches any (single) character in the class
defined by string. Most characters in string
define themselves. A pair of characters separated
by `-' in string defines the set of characters
collating between the specified lower and upper
bounds, thus `[a-z]' as a regular expression
matches any (single) lower-case letter. If the
first character of string is an `^' then the con-
struct matches those characters which it otherwise
would not; thus `[^a-z]' matches anything but a
lower-case letter (and of course a newline). To
place any of the characters `^', `[', or `-' in
string you must escape them with a preceding `\'.
8.4. Combining regular expression primitives
The concatenation of two regular expressions matches the
leftmost and then longest string which can be divided with the
first piece matching the first regular expression and the second
piece matching the second. Any of the (single character matching)
regular expressions mentioned above may be followed by the char-
acter `*' to form a regular expression which matches any number
of adjacent occurrences (including 0) of characters matched by
the regular expression it follows.
The character `~' may be used in a regular expression, and
matches the text which defined the replacement part of the last
substitute command. A regular expression may be enclosed between
the sequences `\(' and `\)' with side effects in the substitute
replacement patterns.
8.5. Substitute replacement patterns
The basic metacharacters for the replacement pattern are `&'
and `~'; these are given as `\&' and `\~' when nomagic is set.
Each instance of `&' is replaced by the characters which the reg-
ular expression matched. The metacharacter `~' stands, in the
replacement pattern, for the defining text of the previous
replacement pattern.
Other metasequences possible in the replacement pattern are
always introduced by the escaping character `\'. The sequence
`\n' is replaced by the text matched by the n-th regular subex-
pression enclosed between `\(' and `\)'.* The sequences `\u' and
`\l' cause the immediately following character in the replacement
to be converted to upper- or lower-case respectively if this
character is a letter. The sequences `\U' and `\L' turn such
conversion on, either until `\E' or `\e' is encountered, or until
the end of the replacement pattern.
_________________________
* When nested, parenthesized subexpressions are present, n is
determined by counting occurrences of `\(' starting from the
left.
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9. Option descriptions
autoindent, ai default: noai
Can be used to ease the preparation of structured program
text. At the beginning of each append, change, or insert
command or when a new line is opened or created by an
append, change, insert, or substitute operation within
visual mode, ex looks at the line being appended after, the
first line changed or the line inserted before and calcu-
lates the amount of whitespace at the start of the line. It
then aligns the cursor at the level of indentation so deter-
mined.
If the user then types lines of text in, they will continue
to be justified at the displayed indenting level. If more
whitespace is typed at the beginning of a line, the follow-
ing line will start aligned with the first non-white charac-
ter of the previous line. To back the cursor up to the
preceding tab stop one can hit ^D. The tab stops going back-
wards are defined at multiples of the shiftwidth option. You
cannot backspace over the indent, except by sending an end-
of-file with a ^D.
Specially processed in this mode is a line with no charac-
ters added to it, which turns into a completely blank line
(the whitespace provided for the autoindent is discarded.)
Also specially processed in this mode are lines beginning
with a `^' and immediately followed by a ^D. This causes the
input to be repositioned at the beginning of the line, but
retaining the previous indent for the next line. Similarly,
a `0' followed by a ^D repositions at the beginning but
without retaining the previous indent.
Autoindent doesn't happen in global commands or when the
input is not a terminal.
autoprint, ap default: ap
Causes the current line to be printed after each delete,
copy, join, move, substitute, t, undo, or shift command.
This has the same effect as supplying a trailing `p' to each
such command. Autoprint is suppressed in globals, and only
applies to the last of many commands on a line.
autowrite, aw default: noaw
Causes the contents of the buffer to be written to the
current file if you have modified it and give a next,
rewind, stop, tag, or ! command, or a ^^ (switch files) or
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^] (tag goto) command in visual. Note, that the ex command
does not autowrite. In each case, there is an equivalent way
of switching when autowrite is set to avoid the autowrite
(edit for next, rewind! for rewind, stop! for stop, tag! for
tag, shell for !, and :e # and a :ta! command from within
visual).
beautify, bf default: nobeautify
Causes all control characters except tab, newline and form-
feed to be discarded from the input. A complaint is
registered the first time a backspace character is dis-
carded. Beautify does not apply to command input.
directory, dir default: dir=/tmp
Specifies the directory in which ex places its buffer file.
If this directory in not writable, then the editor will exit
abruptly when it fails to create its buffer there.
edcompatible default: noedcompatible
Causes the presence or absence of g and c suffixes on sub-
stitute commands to be remembered, and to be toggled by
repeating the suffices. The suffix r makes the substitution
be as in the ~ command, instead of like &.
errorbells, eb default: noeb
Error messages are preceded by a bell.* If possible the edi-
tor always places the error message in a standout mode of
the terminal (such as inverse video) instead of ringing the
bell.
hardtabs, ht default: ht=0
Gives the boundaries on which terminal hardware tabs are set
(or on which the system expands tabs).
ignorecase, ic default: noic
All upper case characters in the text are mapped to lower
case in regular expression matching. In addition, all upper
case characters in regular expressions are mapped to lower
_________________________
* Bell ringing in visual mode on errors is not suppressed by set-
ting noeb.
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case except in character class specifications.
list default: nolist
All printed lines will be displayed (more) unambiguously,
showing tabs and end-of-lines as in the list command.
magic default: magic for ex and vi
If nomagic is set, the number of regular expression meta-
characters is greatly reduced, with only `^' and `$' having
special effects. In addition the metacharacters `~' and `&'
of the replacement pattern are treated as normal characters.
All the normal metacharacters may be made magic when nomagic
is set by preceding them with a `\'.
mesg default: mesg
Causes write permission to be turned off to the terminal
while you are in visual mode, if nomesg is set.
modeline default: nomodeline
If modeline is set, then the first 5 lines and the last five
lines of the file will be checked for ex command lines and
the commands issued. To be recognized as a command line, the
line must have the string ex: or vi: preceded by a tab or a
space. This string may be anywhere in the line and anything
after the : is interpeted as editor commands. This option
defaults to off because of unexpected behavior when editing
files such as /etc/passwd.
number, nu default: nonumber
Causes all output lines to be printed with their line
numbers. In addition each input line will be prompted for by
supplying the line number it will have.
open default: open
If noopen, the commands open and visual are not permitted.
optimize, opt default: optimize
Throughput of text is expedited by setting the terminal to
not do automatic carriage returns when printing more than
one (logical) line of output, greatly speeding output on
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terminals without addressable cursors when text with leading
whitespace is printed.
paragraphs, para default: para=IPLPPPQPP LIpplpipbp
Specifies the paragraphs for the { and } operations in
visual mode. The pairs of characters in the option's value
are the names of the macros which start paragraphs.
prompt default: prompt
Command mode input is prompted for with a `:'.
redraw default: noredraw
The editor simulates (using great amounts of output), an
intelligent terminal on a dumb terminal (e.g. during inser-
tions in visual the characters to the right of the cursor
position are refreshed as each input character is typed).
Useful only at very high speed.
remap default: remap
If on, macros are repeatedly tried until they are unchanged.
For example, if o is mapped to O, and O is mapped to I, then
if remap is set, o will map to I, but if noremap is set, it
will map to O.
report default: report=5
Specifies a threshold for feedback from commands. Any com-
mand which modifies more than the specified number of lines
will provide feedback as to the scope of its changes. For
commands such as global, open, undo, and visual which have
potentially more far reaching scope, the net change in the
number of lines in the buffer is presented at the end of the
command, subject to this same threshold. Thus notification
is suppressed during a global command on the individual com-
mands performed.
scroll default: scroll=1/2 window
Determines the number of logical lines scrolled when an end-
of-file is received from a terminal input in command mode,
and the number of lines printed by a command mode z command
(double the value of scroll).
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sections default: sections=NHSHH HU
Specifies the section macros for the [[ and ]] operations in
visual mode. The pairs of characters in the options's value
are the names of the macros which start paragraphs.
shell, sh default: sh=/bin/sh
Gives the path name of the shell forked for the shell escape
command `!', and by the shell command. The default is taken
from SHELL in the environment, if present.
shiftwidth, sw default: sw=8
Gives the width a software tab stop, used in reverse tabbing
with ^D when using autoindent to append text, and by the
shift commands.
showmatch, sm default: nosm
In open and visual mode, when a ) or } is typed, move the
cursor to the matching ( or { for one second if this match-
ing character is on the screen.
tabstop, ts default: ts=8
The editor expands tabs in the input file to be on tabstop
boundaries for the purposes of display.
taglength, tl default: tl=0
Tags are not significant beyond this many characters. A
value of zero (the default) means that all characters are
significant.
tags default: tags=tags
A path of files to be used as tag files for the tag command.
A requested tag is searched for in the specified files,
sequentially. By default, files called tags are searched for
in the current directory.
term from environment TERM
The terminal type of the output device.
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terse default: noterse
Shorter error diagnostics are produced for the experienced
user.
warn default: warn
Warn if there has been `[No write since last change]' before
a `!' command escape.
window from environment LINES
The number of lines in a text window in the visual command.
The default is 8 at slow speeds (600 baud or less), 16 at
medium speed (1200 baud), and the full screen (minus one
line) at higher speeds.
w300, w1200 w9600
These are not true options but set window only if the speed
is slow (300), medium (1200), or high (9600), respectively.
They are suitable for an EXINIT and make it easy to change
the 8/16/full screen rule.
wrapscan, ws default: ws
Searches using the regular expressions in addressing will
wrap around past the end of the file.
wrapmargin, wm default: wm=0
Defines a margin for automatic wrapover of text during input
in visual mode. See An Introduction to Text Editing with Vi
for details.
writeany, wa default: nowa
Inhibit the checks normally made before write commands,
allowing a write to any file which the system protection
mechanism will allow.
10. Acknowledgements
Chuck Haley contributed greatly to the early development of
ex. Bruce Englar encouraged the redesign which led to ex version
1. Bill Joy wrote versions 1 and 2.0 through 2.7, and created the
framework that users see in the present editor. Mark Horton added
macros and other features and made the editor work on a large
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number of terminals and Unix systems.
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